Section 6 EO M190.06 – LIGHT, MAINTAIN AND EXTINGUISH A FIRE

In cooperation with various fire management agencies, the Canadian Forest Service manages the Forest Fire Danger Rating System. The system uses weather, fuel and topographic data to rate the potential for forest fire ignition and to predict forest fire behaviour. The Forest Fire Danger Rating System must be at a suitable level prior to starting a fire. Never light a fire when the rating is high, very high or extreme. The slightest spark could cause a forest fire.

Note. From “Natural Resources Canada” by Canadian Forest Service, 2009, The Atlas of Canada. Retrieved October 26, 2011, from http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/auth/english/maps/environment/naturalhazards/forest_fires/firedangerrating/1

Figure 1  Forest Fire Danger Rating System

If wind speed is high, the fire will be at risk of spreading if not properly managed. Strong winds can carry sparks away from the fire pit and start an unwanted fire. The fire should be placed in a location where it is effectively sheltered from strong winds.

The fire shall be a suitable size so control can be maintained at all times. Never allow a fire to get larger than four feet wide and three feet high. Fires that are too large can burn out of control, and cause forest fires or personal injury. If a fire becomes too large, stop adding fuel and let the fire cool down.

Avoid windy areas because the fire can flare up and burn out of control. A reflector or a windbreak can be built out of green wood or rocks. The advantage of a reflector is that it concentrates the heat in the desired direction. Areas near water tend to have higher winds.

Clear the ground of all inflammable material before starting the fire. The material should be raked towards the centre of the site where the dead leaves, pine needles and other debris can be burned.

Do not build the fire against an old log or tree trunk. The log may smoulder and catch fire in a breeze.

Do not build the fire below the boughs of a tree. The boughs will dry from the heat and may catch fire.

The fire should be a suitable distance from any shelter in case the wind changes direction.

Surround the fire with dry rocks. They will help contain the fire so it may be properly maintained. Do not use rocks that have been submerged in water. Water expands as it is heated and may cause the rocks to explode. If rocks are unavailable, dig a pit approximately one half foot deep and four feet wide. This pit helps prevent of the fire from spreading.

Appropriate fire fighting equipment shall be placed in close proximity to the fire.

Deliver this teaching point around a properly constructed fire site.

The objective of the activity is to allow the cadet to practically apply the principles learned by constructing an effective fire site.

Nil.

Ensure cadets safely use the equipment.

After the cadets have completed the activity they should return to the original fire site for the next portion of the lesson.

The three required elements for a fire include oxygen, spark / heat and fuel.

Note. From “Covidien Energy-based Professional Education”, 2006, The Fire Triangle, 2010, by Covidien AG, October 26, 2011, from http://www.valleylabeducation.org/fire/pages/fire-12.html

Figure 2  Fire Triangle

Oxygen is required for a fire to stay lit. A spark is required to initially start the fire. The heat produced by the embers keeps the fire going. Fuel is anything that burns, such as wood.

If any one of the elements is removed, the fire will extinguish. When lighting a fire, always ensure adequate ventilation, enough fuel and a hot enough source to ignite the fuel.

Demonstrate how oxygen, heat / spark and fuel are all needed to start a fire and keep it lit. Using a candle, a match and a large water glass, explain that without the match (spark) the candle (fuel) cannot be lit. Light the candle and place the empty water glass over the candle to prevent air (oxygen) from reaching it. The flame will extinguish.

Warmth and comfort fires can help to conserve body heat and save needed calories. These fires can be helpful in keeping away wild animals and insects. Warmth and comfort fires are the most practical fires, as they consume little fuel and burn slowly.

Signal fires should produce heavy black smoke to attract potential rescuers. This black smoke can be generated by the addition of green branches, rubber, plastic or heavy oil to an already well-established fire.

Cooking fires should be set flat on the ground. They can also be constructed in a pit if there is heavy wind or the surrounding ground contains a fire hazard. Cooking fires shall be a moderate size or the food burns. The hot coals can be used to start a warmth and comfort fire to heat the camping area when cooking is finished.

Examples of these fires should be built to use as training aids.

TINDER

Tinder is any kind of material that a minimum amount of heat ignites. Good tinder needs only a spark to set it ablaze. Birch bark, dry grass, fine wood shavings, bird down, waxed paper and cotton fluff from clothing all make good tinder. Tinder must be dry. It is a good idea to carry tinder in a waterproof container.

Matches. Matches are the easiest way to start a fire. They produce a flame instantly when struck against a striking pad. The biggest problem with matches is that in wind or wet conditions they may not be useful. They will not ignite if the striking pad becomes worn or wet. The matches should be packed in waterproof containers so that they cannot rub or rattle together and accidentally ignite. Non-safety, strike anywhere matches are the most effective in a survival situation.

Flint and steel. Flint and steel is the best method of lighting a fire if matches are unavailable. If the flint is struck vigorously with a piece of steel it produces hot sparks that ignites the fire. The flint should be stuck downward so the sparks hits the centre of the tinder. Even if the flint is wet it still produces a spark.

Magnifying glass. Magnifying glasses focus strong direct sunlight to produce enough heat to ignite a fire. The light from the sun should be directed onto the tinder. The obvious disadvantage to the magnifying glass is that if the sun is not out, it will not produce a spark.

Battery and steel wool. Strands of steel wool can be attached to the terminals of a car battery to produce enough spark to start a fire. When the two strands of steel wool are brought close together, a spark jumps between them.

Using a nine-volt battery demonstrate this method for obtaining a spark.

Kindling is the wood used to raise flames from the tinder so larger less combustible materials can be burned. The best kindling consists of small, dry twigs and small pieces of soft woods. Do not collect kindling straight from the earth because it is usually damp. It should be gathered from standing deadwood.

Fuel is anything that burns in the fire. Dry wood from standing trees should be used to get the fire going. Once the fire is established, greener and damp wood can be used. Hard woods include hickory, beech and oak. These hard woods burn well, give off heat, and last a long time as hot coals. The fire can be maintained for a long period of time using hard woods. Soft woods burn very quickly and give off sparks. They can be used when lighting the fire. These soft woods include cedar, alder, hemlock, spruce, pine, chestnut and willow. After the fire is steadily burning, add fuel that is three to four times the size of the kindling.

A fire should never be left unattended. It takes only seconds for a fire to begin burning out of control. Immediately after a fire has been started, it requires a modest amount of wood to build up heat. The fire requires very little wood to keep it burning once a good amount of heat is built up.

Ventilation allows the needed oxygen to be supplied to the fire. The more oxygen introduced, the brighter the fire. The ideal amount of ventilation results in a steady burn while only using a moderate amount of fuel. The fire suffocates if there is too much fuel.

Water is the easiest way to put out a fire. Water should be dumped on the fire until it results in no heat emanating from the centre. Ensure that all of the sparks are out prior to decamping by smothering it completely with wet earth or sand and filling the fire pit.

The objective of this activity is to allow the cadet to practically apply the principles learned by constructing, lighting, maintaining and extinguishing a fire.

Nil.

1.Divide the cadets into small groups.

2.Have the cadets in their groups, return to their fire pit.

3.Provide cadets with a rake and shovel, and firefighting equipment.

4.Have each group prepare the tinder and kindling.

5.Have each group light the fire using a match.

6.Have each group maintain the fire for three minutes.

7.Have each group extinguish their fire.

8.Ensure that the fire is completely extinguished.

Ensure fire-fighting equipment is near each fire site.